A variable whose declared type is “reference to type T” shall be initialized. [ Example:
int g(int) noexcept;
void f() {
int i;
int& r = i; // r refers to i
r = 1; // the value of i becomes 1
int* p = &r; // p points to i
int& rr = r; // rr refers to what r refers to, that is, to i
int (&rg)(int) = g; // rg refers to the function g
rg(i); // calls function g
int a[3];
int (&ra)[3] = a; // ra refers to the array a
ra[1] = i; // modifies a[1]
}— end example ]
A reference cannot be changed to refer to another object after initialization. [ Note: Assignment to a reference assigns to the object referred to by the reference ([expr.ass]). — end note ] Argument passing and function value return are initializations.
The initializer can be omitted for a reference only in a parameter declaration ([dcl.fct]), in the declaration of a function return type, in the declaration of a class member within its class definition ([class.mem]), and where the extern specifier is explicitly used. [ Example:
int& r1; // error: initializer missing extern int& r2; // OK
— end example ]
Given types “cv1 T1” and “cv2 T2”, “cv1 T1” is reference-related to “cv2 T2” if T1 is the same type as T2, or T1 is a base class of T2. “cv1 T1” is reference-compatible with “cv2 T2” if
T1 is reference-related to T2, or
T2 is “noexcept function” and T1 is “function”, where the function types are otherwise the same,
and cv1 is the same cv-qualification as, or greater cv-qualification than, cv2. In all cases where the reference-related or reference-compatible relationship of two types is used to establish the validity of a reference binding, and T1 is a base class of T2, a program that necessitates such a binding is ill-formed if T1 is an inaccessible or ambiguous ([class.member.lookup]) base class of T2.
A reference to type “cv1 T1” is initialized by an expression of type “cv2 T2” as follows:
If the reference is an lvalue reference and the initializer expression
is an lvalue (but is not a bit-field), and “cv1 T1” is reference-compatible with “cv2 T2”, or
has a class type (i.e., T2 is a class type), where T1 is not reference-related to T2, and can be converted to an lvalue of type “cv3 T3”, where “cv1 T1” is reference-compatible with “cv3 T3”106 (this conversion is selected by enumerating the applicable conversion functions ([over.match.ref]) and choosing the best one through overload resolution),
then the reference is bound to the initializer expression lvalue in the first case and to the lvalue result of the conversion in the second case (or, in either case, to the appropriate base class subobject of the object). [ Note: The usual lvalue-to-rvalue, array-to-pointer, and function-to-pointer standard conversions are not needed, and therefore are suppressed, when such direct bindings to lvalues are done. — end note ]
[ Example:
double d = 2.0; double& rd = d; // rd refers to d const double& rcd = d; // rcd refers to d struct A { }; struct B : A { operator int&(); } b; A& ra = b; // ra refers to A subobject in b const A& rca = b; // rca refers to A subobject in b int& ir = B(); // ir refers to the result of B::operator int&
— end example ]
Otherwise, the reference shall be an lvalue reference to a non-volatile const type (i.e., cv1 shall be const), or the reference shall be an rvalue reference. [ Example:
double& rd2 = 2.0; // error: not an lvalue and reference not const int i = 2; double& rd3 = i; // error: type mismatch and reference not const
— end example ]
If the initializer expression
is an rvalue (but not a bit-field) or function lvalue and “cv1 T1” is reference-compatible with “cv2 T2”, or
has a class type (i.e., T2 is a class type), where T1 is not reference-related to T2, and can be converted to an rvalue or function lvalue of type “cv3 T3”, where “cv1 T1” is reference-compatible with “cv3 T3” (see [over.match.ref]),
then the value of the initializer expression in the first case and the result of the conversion in the second case is called the converted initializer. If the converted initializer is a prvalue, its type T4 is adjusted to type “cv1 T4” ([conv.qual]) and the temporary materialization conversion is applied. In any case, the reference is bound to the resulting glvalue (or to an appropriate base class subobject).
[ Example:
struct A { };
struct B : A { } b;
extern B f();
const A& rca2 = f(); // bound to the A subobject of the B rvalue.
A&& rra = f(); // same as above
struct X {
operator B();
operator int&();
} x;
const A& r = x; // bound to the A subobject of the result of the conversion
int i2 = 42;
int&& rri = static_cast<int&&>(i2); // bound directly to i2
B&& rrb = x; // bound directly to the result of operator B
— end example ]
Otherwise:
If T1 or T2 is a class type and T1 is not reference-related to T2, user-defined conversions are considered using the rules for copy-initialization of an object of type “cv1 T1” by user-defined conversion ([dcl.init], [over.match.copy], [over.match.conv]); the program is ill-formed if the corresponding non-reference copy-initialization would be ill-formed. The result of the call to the conversion function, as described for the non-reference copy-initialization, is then used to direct-initialize the reference. For this direct-initialization, user-defined conversions are not considered.
Otherwise, the initializer expression is implicitly converted to a prvalue of type “cv1 T1”. The temporary materialization conversion is applied and the reference is bound to the result.
If T1 is reference-related to T2:
cv1 shall be the same cv-qualification as, or greater cv-qualification than, cv2; and
if the reference is an rvalue reference, the initializer expression shall not be an lvalue.
[ Example:
struct Banana { };
struct Enigma { operator const Banana(); };
struct Alaska { operator Banana&(); };
void enigmatic() {
typedef const Banana ConstBanana;
Banana &&banana1 = ConstBanana(); // ill-formed
Banana &&banana2 = Enigma(); // ill-formed
Banana &&banana3 = Alaska(); // ill-formed
}
const double& rcd2 = 2; // rcd2 refers to temporary with value 2.0
double&& rrd = 2; // rrd refers to temporary with value 2.0
const volatile int cvi = 1;
const int& r2 = cvi; // error: cv-qualifier dropped
struct A { operator volatile int&(); } a;
const int& r3 = a; // error: cv-qualifier dropped
// from result of conversion function
double d2 = 1.0;
double&& rrd2 = d2; // error: initializer is lvalue of related type
struct X { operator int&(); };
int&& rri2 = X(); // error: result of conversion function is lvalue of related type
int i3 = 2;
double&& rrd3 = i3; // rrd3 refers to temporary with value 2.0
— end example ]
In all cases except the last (i.e., implicitly converting the initializer expression to the underlying type of the reference), the reference is said to bind directly to the initializer expression.
This requires a conversion function returning a reference type.